Profiles In Courage: Salem Poor

In June 1775, colonial patriots in Boston got wind of a British plan to occupy the hills outside the city, which would give the redcoats control of Boston Harbor. British troops occupied the city, but control of the surrounding hills would give the rebels the ability to lay siege to Boston and force the British occupiers out, so they took control of those hills and began to build fortifications. The main defenses were on the hill closest to the city, Breed's Hill. 

Once the colonials began reinforcing the position, British forces under Gen. William Howe set out to attack and capture it with 3,000 men. Col. William Prescott led the colonial defense with just 1,200 men in what would be remembered (in a weird twist of history) as the Battle of Bunker Hill. Among those defenders was a Black man named Salem Poor, who would become one of the most celebrated Soldiers of the entire American Revolution. 

Poor was born into slavery in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in or around 1747. By the age of 22, he had earned enough money in his work to buy his freedom, paying £27 (more than $7,600 in today's dollars), an annual salary in those days. He stayed in Massachusetts, and when the colony formed its army, Poor joined it. He wasn't the only Black man in his unit, either. Titus Coburn, Peter Salem, and Seymour Burr were also minutemen in the outfit. Three dozen Black men would fight in the battle. The unit was originally supposed to help build the fortifications on Breed's Hill, but the British forced a change of plans.

On June 17, 1775, Gen. Howe led a series of direct assaults against the defenders of Breed's Hill, assisted by fire from British ships in Boston Harbor. The rebels fought off two of the attacks. After running out of ammunition, they were forced to retreat. Poor and the men from Andover stopped building the defenses to help cover their retreat. Under heavy fire, five of his fellow Soldiers were killed and six wounded. Poor helped tend to the wounded while returning fire, even killing a British officer, Lt. Col. James Abercrombie.

Although it was a strategic and tactical victory for the redcoats, the British paid a heavy price for taking Breed's Hill. More than a third of their force was killed or wounded, while the rebels suffered just 140 dead. It was a loss, but it showed that the rebel army was more than the "rabble" British officers thought they were. One officer even remarked, "We have ... learned one melancholy truth, which is that the Americans if they were equally well commanded, are full as good Soldiers as ours."

Poor was one of those good Soldiers. He was the only Soldier recognized by Prescott by name after the battle, and he was singled out by 13 other colonial officers. The General Court of Massachusetts released a statement citing Poor's gallantry.  

"A Negro Man Called Salem Poor ... in the late Battle of Charleston, behaved like an Experienced Officer, as well as an Excellent Soldier, to Set forth Particulars of his Conduct Would Be Tedious, Wee Would Only begg [sic] leave to say in the person of this Sd. [said] Negro Centers a Brave & gallant Soldier -- the Reward due to so great and Distinguish a Character, We submit to the Congress."

Despite Poor's performance, Gen. George Washington ended the recruitment of Black Soldiers in July of 1775 and forbade them from serving in the Continental Army. Those who were already enlisted, like Salem Poor, were allowed to continue their service. Poor's Revolutionary War career would lead him through the winter at Valley Forge and to the battles of White Plains, Saratoga, and Monmouth. He would fight until 1780, when he was discharged in Rhode Island. He died in 1802, never receiving an award for his service. 
 

Battlefield Chronicles: The Fall of Rome

In any normal war, capturing an enemy capital would capture the imagination of soldiers and the public back home. During World War II, capturing the capital of one of the original members of the Axis Pact should have been a defining moment. That moment was overshadowed by another defining moment: D-Day, the amphibious invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe.  

When the Allies captured Rome on June 4, 1944, however, the city was open because most of the fighting had taken place along the way – and the Allied soldiers paid dearly for their efforts almost the entire way.

Having kicked the Axis out of North Africa in 1943, the Western Allies' next target was Sicily, a resounding success that captured the island in just five weeks. They then prepared to move on to Italy, Europe's "soft underbelly" (as British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called it). Their victory on Sicily caused the overthrow of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, which allowed Allied planners to make an ambitious landing on the Italian peninsula. 

Adolf Hitler was not going to simply give up Italy because the Italians stopped fighting. He launched Operation Axis, the wholesale German takeover of the country. When the Allies landed on September 9, 1943, only two German divisions were available near Salerno to resist the invasion; the rest were tied up, disarming the Italian Army. Instead of just invading Italy at the "boot" of the country near Taranto, they also landed at Calabria, in the "toe," and Salerno, south of Naples. 

Since Hitler was convinced the south of Italy was indefensible, the Germans hoped to retreat to northern Italy, but that didn't happen. Instead, the new German commander, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, used the country's geography to form a series of defensive lines that would slow the Allied advance. The Allies lost more than 12,500 men killed, wounded, or missing in just the initial invasion of Italy. There was more work left to do. 

The Nazis formed the Volturno and Barbara Lines as a delaying strategy while they prepared their main line of defense, the Winter Line. It was three smaller lines that spanned the length of the peninsula. The Bernhardt Line and Hitler Line ran from the Tyrrhenian Sea in the west to just northeast of the town of Cassino, where they flowed into the Gustav Line. The Gustav Line centered around the reinforced mountaintop abbey on Monte Cassino and ran through the Apennine Mountains to the Adriatic coast in the east. 

Allied forces first crossed the Volturno Line on October 6, 1943, pushing the Germans back to the Barbara Line. By November 1, they had pushed across the Barbara Line in the West. Little more than a week later, the eastern line had fallen. The offensive against the Bernhardt Line (and the rest of the Winter Line) was launched on December 1, 1943, where it stopped the U.S. Fifth Army's advance on the Adriatic side of the line. The Eighth Army had more luck, penetrating the line in the west, but took heavy casualties. When winter set in during December, however, the entire operation came to a halt. 

To overcome the stalemate, the Allies launched a daring amphibious landing at an unlikely location, Anzio. Surrounded by marshes and mountains, a landing at Anzio was supposed to catch the Germans by surprise, destabilize the Winter Line defenses, and make an attack on Rome. 

Launched on January 22, 1944, the surprise worked, and Allied forces made their way to the outskirts of the Italian capital, but they failed to press their advantage and instead reinforced their positions. The delay gave Kesselring time to respond, flooding the area's marshlands and raining artillery on the invaders. What might have been a quick victory turned into months of fighting. An estimated 43,000 Allied troops were killed, wounded, or missing by the time they broke the stalemate in May 1944. 

Finally, breaking the Winter Line required four major offensives by both the Fifth and Eighth Armies between January and May 1944. The focus was on Monte Cassino and its mountain fortress. Polish, Canadian, American, British, and Free French troops assaulted Monte Cassino for four months, taking 55,000 casualties before forcing the Germans out of the Winter Line. 

When they finally broke, Gen. Mark Clark, making a breakout at Anzio, was supposed to cut off their escape and destroy much of the retreating German 10th Army. Instead, he disobeyed orders and captured the city of Rome, which had been declared an open city and offered no resistance. The Germans fell back north of Rome to another prepared defensive line called the Gothic Line. There, the Germans would make a stand that would last until almost the end of the war. 

TWS Member Comment

ET3 John Warren US Coast Guard Veteran
Served 1970-1974

VA Guidance: Are You Eligible for Disability Compensation?

By Paul R. Lawrence

A frequent topic in conversations with Veterans is how they were injured in service and whether they are eligible for benefits. Generally, they point out they didn't serve in combat but were injured while in service. Their question is, given their experience, "Am I eligible for benefits?"

The specific benefit they are referring to is Disability Compensation. This is a tax-free monthly payment for Veterans who have suffered an injury or disability while in service. Consequently, under certain conditions, the answer to the question could be yes. One important requirement is to demonstrate that the injury is connected to service, often called Service Connection.
Service-Connection can be demonstrated in one of three ways:
1.    Direct Service-Connection
2.    Aggravated Service-Connection
3.    Secondary Service-Connection 

Direct Service-Connection
This means that the injury occurred while in service. The phrase "while in service" is critical as it doesn't limit when the injury occurred to a specific location or event. Your injury could have occurred in combat, training, doing routine duties, or even during time away from official duties.
To demonstrate a Direct Service Connection, you need to show:
•    The injury occurred while in service
•    The injury still exists – that is, it's current
•    A link (or nexus) between what happened in service and your current situation

An example – Service member Jane Smith falls off a ladder while painting the barracks, hurting her back. Years later when she files for Disability Compensation due to continued issues with her back, she points out the injury was directly related to her time in service.

Aggravated Service-Connection
This means that a condition that existed upon entering service was made worse while in service. A key here is that the worsening must be greater than what would have happened naturally over time. Accurate medical records documenting the condition when beginning service are very important.

An example: Robert had a skin condition prior to entering military service. Due to exposure to certain chemicals in the military, Robert's skin condition became worse than it would have been on its own through natural progression. When filing for Disability Compensation, Robert demonstrates that his condition was aggravated while in service.

Secondary Service-Connection
This means another service-connected injury caused the condition. When this happens, the newer injury, which is near or close to the previously service-connected injury, is considered to be service-connected. The second injury does not need to be related to military service and often happens later, in many cases years later.

One way to think about Secondary Service-Connection is the second injury would not have occurred were it not for the first, service-connected injury. To demonstrate this, you must show causation – that is, the secondary condition was caused by the service-connected disability.

An example - Pat severely hurts his ankle while in service, and it's service-connected. Later, he develops problems with his knee on the same leg. While filing for Disability Compensation for his knee, Pat demonstrates it was caused by his service-connected ankle injury.

This can be confusing, and applying for Disability Compensation can be tedious, but don't be discouraged. You can get no-cost assistance from a Veteran Service Officer, who can help develop and file your claim. Service Officers have been trained in VA processes. Look for one who is "Accredited" by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, indicating they keep up to date with training and have passed a background screen.
Service Officers are available from:
•    The American Legion
•    Disabled American Veterans (DAV)
•    Paralyzed Veterans of America (PVA)
•    Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW)
•    Wounded Warrior Project

You can also access a Service Officer from your state Department of Veteran Affairs/Services. Some counties also provide Service Officers. A quick internet search should allow you to find one or both of these near you.
 

Paul R. Lawrence, Ph.D., served as Under Secretary of Benefits at the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs from May 2018 to January 2021. He is the author of "Veterans Benefits for You: Get What You Deserve," available from Amazon.

The Origin of Don't Give Up the Ship Day

"Don't Give Up the Ship Day" isn't a federal holiday. No one gets the day off, and the banks aren't closed. But it is a way for the U.S. Navy to honor one of its most legendary heroes, a commander who embodied the Navy's fighting spirit and inspired it in sailors for generations to come. 

Captain James Lawrence became a midshipman as a teenager and, within a decade, was commander of his own ship. His star was already on the rise when the United States declared war on Great Britain during the War of 1812. The immortal words he shouted at his men during that war would be among his last, but they became a rallying cry for the U.S. Navy for centuries to come.

Lawrence had a long career as a fighting officer before being promoted to Captain and taking command of the USS Chesapeake in 1813. During the Quasi-War (an undeclared conflict with France), he saw action aboard the USS Ganges and the USS Adams, which earned him his promotion to Lieutenant. During the Barbary War, he joined the raid to burn the captured USS Philadelphia in Tripoli Harbor. As commander of the USS Hornet during the War of 1812, he captured the HMS Peacock off the coast of South America.

In March 1813, he came home to the United States, where he was made a Captain and given command of the USS Chesapeake, a three-masted, 38-gun heavy frigate. At this phase in the war, Britain's Royal Navy had a highly effective blockade in place, crippling the U.S. economy by bottling ships up in their home ports. Lawrence the Chesapeake's first mission was to fight its way out of Boston Harbor. 

Almost immediately after leaving port, the Chesapeake met the HMS Shannon, a smaller 38-gun frigate but one with highly-trained and capable gun crews: the Shannon's commander, Capt. Philip Broke had been burning American ships in front of the port for nearly two months, issuing a challenge to the Chesapeake to meet him in single-ship combat. Lawrence never received the challenge, but he was determined to fight the British. The Chesapeake set sail on June 1, 1813. 

The two ships were fairly evenly matched. The Chesapeake had a larger crew, but they were relatively new to the ship. The Shannon's crew, while smaller, had been trained to fire into an enemy's hull to kill its gun crews. They met at around 5:30 in the evening but fired the first shots at 6 o'clock. Shannon struck first, hitting Chesapeake's gun ports and sweeping the American decks with cannonades. Chesapeake's helm and fore-topsail halyards were destroyed, leaving it unable to maneuver. It then became lodged against its British foe. 

The British continued to rake the decks of the Chesapeake until a gunpowder store exploded, causing Capt. Broke to order his men to board the American frigate. Lawrence, mortally wounded, ordered his men: "Don't give up the ship. Fight her till she sinks." He was carried below decks as the British boarding party took control of the Chesapeake. Some 72 Americans were killed in all.

The capture of the Chesapeake was big news in the ongoing war, as was the death of Capt. James Lawrence. He was commended for gallantry in combat by both Americans and British alike, and his remains were buried with full military honors in Halifax, Nova Scotia (he would later be moved to Trinity Church Cemetery in New York). But the story doesn't end there.

Lawrence's friend, Oliver Hazard Perry, got the news while fighting the British on Lake Erie. He commissioned a new battle flag with white letters on a field of blue that read "DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP." He flew this flag aboard his ship, the USS Lawrence, as he defeated British and Indian forces, cutting off their supply lines in the region. 

The flag is now immortalized forever in the halls of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis. Today, "Don't Give Up the Ship Day" is celebrated by those familiar with it on June 1. The words Lawrence uttered on the deck of the Chesapeake are words the Navy and its sailors live by, reminding them of the Navy's core values and to never, ever give up. 

TWS Member Comment

TSgt Ronald Foreback US Air Force (Ret)
Served 1976-1993

Book Review: White Buses

By Jack DuArte

During World War II, Sweden was sandwiched between Finland and its ongoing war with the Soviet Union and Norway, which fell to the Nazis in the earliest days of the war in Europe. Somehow, throughout the war, it managed to maintain its neutrality – but that doesn’t mean the country or its diplomats did nothing during that time. 

A Swedish noble, Count Folke Bernadotte, was among the most active. He managed to negotiate a prisoner exchange, getting 11,000 POWs home through Sweden between 1942 and 1943. He also attempted to negotiate a peace deal between the Western Allies and Nazi Germany in 1945. His most lasting contribution, however, came toward the end of the war. The White Buses, as the operation has come to be called, saw 300 volunteer Swedes move an estimated 15,345 prisoners from German concentration camps to hospitals in Sweden. 

Jack DuArte is a former Air Force officer who received the Bronze Star during his service in the Vietnam War. He has had a lifelong fascination with writing, joining the staff of the New Orleans Times-Picayune at just 14 years old. After graduating from the University of Kentucky and later the University of Evansville, he joined the Air Force, did his duty, and returned home in 1971. He went into the wine industry (where he would eventually own several Napa Valley wineries) but continued writing a regular column for the Times-Picayune. 

He has since returned to Kentucky, where he continued to write. Now, he writes books, mostly centered around the forgotten stories of World War II. His latest book, the tenth in a series about World War II, is “The White Buses,” the story of how Bernadotte managed to negotiate with Reichsfuhrer Heinrich Himmler to rescue more than 15,000 concentration camp inmates to neutral Sweden as Nazi Germany was crumbling. 

The operation wasn’t without its problems – or its criticisms. The buses were painted white and bore the symbol of the International Red Cross on their roofs. It was hoped the Allied air forces would not strike the buses as military targets. The Swedes brave the most notorious camps, like Dachau and Ravensbrück, to retrieve their precious cargo and ferry them to ships anchored in the Bay of Lübeck. But British intelligence receives information that former SS officers are among those in the buses, attempting to escape their crimes – should they attack the buses? 

The White Buses story is widely known in history, so one could easily search the Internet for the answer, but DuArte’s retelling of the operation is filled with nuance, and his writing is interesting and engaging. “White Buses” is an eminently readable masterwork of historical nonfiction. 

After the war, Bernadotte and the entire White Buses operation were lauded with praise for their rescue of so many victims of Nazi cruelty. But they were also criticized for focusing on inmates of Scandinavian descent to the detriment of other, more needy prisoners (although roughly half of the prisoners were from other nationalities). Also, since the focus of the rescue was on nationality, it’s unknown how many (if any) Jews were saved from the Holocaust. The aftermath was controversial, but the story is riveting. 

“The White Buses” is available now in paperback on Amazon for less than two dollars, or $6.99 for Amazon Kindle readers. Amazon customers with a Kindle Unlimited subscription can read this book and Jack DuArte’s books for free.